A/HRC/11/9 page 18 69. Men and women are indeed affected in different ways by the CTPs. A gender-based approach is required to refine the analysis on the potential impact of CTPs in the enjoyment of human rights by women living in extreme poverty. For example, means testing that links a woman’s eligibility to a spouse’s income can exacerbate potential vulnerability to abuse or economic deprivation. 70. Without the removal of legislative, procedural and cultural barriers that impede women’s participation, they cannot exercise their rights. Often, women’s participation is constrained due to their subordinate status in relation to men at home (e.g. husbands, fathers and brothers) or men as decision makers and power-holders (traditional leaders, local council members, judges, police).17 Women often confront disadvantages in terms of education, access to land, credit and other productive assets. Without security, power or resources they cannot participate and demand accountability. 71. CTPs that make women heads of household ensure that conditions are met (e.g. sending children to school, participating in health checks or attending nutrition workshops) may create an unnecessary burden on women while perpetuating traditional notions of gender roles within the family. Putting conditionalities on women is based on evidence suggesting that women’s commitment to the well-being of their families is generally greater than that of men. In such case, programmes are designed to circumvent the risks of men misusing the resources provided to them and ensuring that the intended beneficiary (e.g. children) is reached. However, this approach runs a high risk of perpetuating patriarchy and society’s view of this behaviour instead of working to change it.18 72. CTPs imposing conditionalities on women may have a punitive outcome if they do not take into account the opportunity costs for women (e.g. their own time and behaviour) or ensure that services are available, affordable and gender-sensitive. B. Children 73. Resource transfers facilitate the compliance with several obligations assumed by States with regard to children. They can have an impact on a child’s right to survival (article 6, Convention on the Rights of the Child), on their right to the enjoyment of the highest attainable standard of health (art. 24), on the right to benefit from social security, including social insurance (art. 26), on the right to a standard of living adequate for the child’s physical, mental, spiritual, moral and social development (art. 27), on the right to the highest attainable standard of health (art. 24) and right to education (art. 28), among others. As established under the Convention, “a child means every human being below the age of 18 years unless under the law applicable to the child, majority is attained earlier”. 17 18 “Who answers to women? Gender and Accountability”, UNIFEM, 2008. Bradshaw, S., “From structural adjustment to social adjustment: a gendered analysis of Conditional Cash Transfer programmes in Mexico and Nicaragua”, Global Social Policy, vol. 8, No. 2, pp. 188-207.