A/HRC/17/34/Add.1 measures to ensure that its policy of equal access to education be implemented for every child regardless of ethnic origin or gender. 41. In line with its international human rights obligations, Viet Nam provides primary school tuition free of charge in public schools. Furthermore, from 2006 to 2008 about 7.8 million Vietnamese benefited from exemption or reduction of school fees and other schooling contributions.42 The independent expert recognizes the clear progress in enrolment rates and increased levels of public spending on education. Nonetheless, she is concerned by the practice of charging informal fees, especially at the primary level, as well as the increasing indirect cost of education (for items such as transport, uniforms and textbooks). The 2006 Viet Nam Household Living Standards Survey revealed that households were paying significant amounts (ranging from US$13 to US$64 per year) for primary education, even though tuition is free.43 Direct and indirect costs contribute to a growing gap in access to education between rich and poor households, particularly at the secondary level.44 Hence fee exemption and reduction schemes must be expanded to include further coverage of indirect expenses, which for many families living in poverty create an insurmountable barrier to their children’s education, thereby increasing the likelihood of intergenerational transmission of poverty. 42. The growing role of the private sector in provision of child-related social services is also of concern. In 2008-2009, 51.1 per cent of preschool students were in non-public education institutions, along with 21.2 per cent of upper secondary students.45 As private schools are permitted to charge fees, the independent expert is concerned that this trend will widen inequality in terms of quality and accessibility of education provision. Emphasizing that the actions of the private sector can affect the enjoyment of child rights, the independent expert recalls that even when the State has delegated the provision of public services to private providers it retains responsibility for the protection of human rights and ensuring universal accessibility and quality of services. 43. Recent data suggests that 16 per cent of children aged 5-14 are involved in some form of child labour.46 An estimated 27,000 children work in harmful and hazardous conditions,47 with children living in extreme poverty most vulnerable to the worst forms of labour exploitation.48 In line with the Government’s responsibility to provide protection for children from economic exploitation (Convention on the Rights of the Child, art. 32), the independent expert calls for prevention measures to reduce the flow of vulnerable children into child labour and for direct action to identify and withdraw those children working in the worst forms of labour. 44. The protection of children from sexual exploitation and trafficking (Convention on the Rights of the Child, arts. 34 and 35), itself linked to socio-economic changes such as widening inequality, migration and urbanization, must be a further priority for the Government. There is a need for a more comprehensive social protection system in this regard to provide an adequate safety net for all children, especially the most vulnerable. 45. In partnership with UNICEF, Viet Nam recently invested in the establishment of a more sensitive indicator of child poverty clustering multiple indicators of health, education, 42 43 44 45 46 47 48 12 MOLISA, “Social Security Strategy: Period 2011-2020” (2010), p. 18. UNICEF, An Analysis of the Situation of Children in Viet Nam 2010, p. 187. H. Hansen., Le Dang Trung “Better than its Reputation? The Incidence of Social Transfers and Education Fee Exemptions in Vietnam” DEPOCEN Working Paper Series No. 2007/09. UNICEF, An Analysis of the Situation of Children in Viet Nam 2010, p. 66. Ibid, p. 23. Ibid, p. 226. Understanding Children’s Work, Understanding Children’s Work in Vietnam (2009), p. 43.