A/64/279 74. The absence of accessible and effective mechanisms to ensure transparency and accountability may easily expose social protection systems to corruption and manipulation. Programmes that do not have channels to receive, process and respond to eventual complaints by their supposed beneficiaries risk perpetuating mismanagement practices. E. Addressing specific concerns with regard to gender, age and disabilities 75. Social protection measures need to be designed without any discrimination and to ensure protection of those most in need. While social protection instruments can contribute to the better realization of the rights of the vulnerable, poorly designed measures may have the opposite effect. 76. Social protection measures may have a different impact depending on the gender, age, disability, ethnicity or other characteristics of the beneficiary. Often, measures fail to take into account the particular requirements of female-headed households, the elderly and persons with disabilities. For example, measures taken by Governments to protect employment often tend to be based on the stereotype of the male bread-winner and female caregiver and therefore concentrate on maledominated areas of the economy. Public works programmes, for example, tend to prioritize male-dominated employment categories such as construction. 77. Understanding social protection systems as a broad set of policies that go beyond the provision of income is essential when addressing the needs of particularly vulnerable groups that are dependent on social services for their development and social integration. There is significant evidence that children are the main indirect beneficiaries of social protection measures. Yet, there are also indications that the sole provision of income will fall short in improving the overall situation of children if essential services are unavailable or inadequate. Similarly, the absence of integrated social services for the elderly and persons with disabilities will surely reduce the impact of the provision of social security. 78. Special measures or affirmative action measures may also be required. Elderly and persons with disabilities who are unable to work require permanent coverage by social protection systems. Basic universal pensions for old age are part of what ILO considers basic social protection. At least 72 countries in the world maintain a universal pension system, out of which 46 are low- or middle-income countries. 37 VII. Supporting social protection as a response to the crisis 79. From a human rights perspective, Government policies to stimulate growth based only on macroeconomic concerns do not necessarily help the poor and most vulnerable to recover from crises. A more systematic strategy which actively promotes the realization of human rights is needed to respond to this crisis and ensure social protection for all people at all times. 80. In the past, economic literature has asserted that there is a trade-off between the reinforcement of social protection systems to protect the poorest on the one __________________ 37 18 http://www.helpage.org/Researchandpolicy/Socialprotection/PensionWatch/Feasibility. 09-45276