A/HRC/33/49 they would like to do, particularly in fields where women are either underrepresented or where wage gaps persist. The presence of women in more publicly visible positions, including in politics, management and decision-making, may influence stereotyping and deeply rooted gender-assigned roles. B. Social norms and stereotyping 18. A gender stereotype is defined as “a generalized view or preconception about attributes or characteristics that are ought to be possessed by, or the roles that are or should be performed by women and men”. 14 A gender stereotype is harmful when it limits women’s and men’s capacity to develop their personal abilities, pursue their careers and make choices about their lives. Gender stereotyping is wrongful when it results in violations of human rights and fundamental freedoms. States cannot dismiss stereotyping and stigma as a social phenomenon over which States have no influence; instead, they must actively combat practices that are based on harmful stereotypes of men and women, including in the private sphere.15 19. Compounded gender stereotypes can have a disproportionately negative impact, in particular on the enjoyment of the human rights to water and sanitation, on certain groups of women, such as women with disabilities, women from minority or indigenous groups, women from lower caste groups and women of lower economic status. They may moreover become further compounded when they intersect with other forms of stigma or taboos, like those linked to menstruation and perimenopause, incontinence or childbirth-related complications, such as obstetric fistula. The power of stereotypes, stigmas, taboos and gender-assigned roles is such that persons sometimes do not claim their legal rights for fear or because of the pressure placed on them to conform to societal expectations. These deeply entrenched issues call for approaches that go beyond formal protection in the law. 20. Practices and beliefs are different in every culture, but generally menstruation is considered to be something unclean or impure and contact between men and women during menstruation is viewed as something that should be avoided. 16 Girls and women are sometimes not allowed to use the same toilets as men or are barred from certain locations. 17 Girls all over the world grow up with the idea that menstruation is something they should hide and not speak about — an embarrassing event associated with shame. This powerful stigma and taboo surrounding menstruation translates into fear of leaking or staining clothes. Worldwide, women and girls prefer to hide the fact that they are menstruating.18 Data collected in Senegal shows that, owing to shame, menstrual material, once washed, is mainly dried in secluded, private and dark locations, such as tiled rooms or even under pillows, instead of in direct sunlight, which would reduce the risk of infection by ensuring that pathogens do not grow.19 21. In many cultures, girls are considered adults after their first menstruation and may drop out of school, marry and start having children. Increased knowledge of menstruation 14 15 16 17 18 19 OHCHR, “Gender stereotyping as a human rights violation” (October 2013), p. 24. See A/HRC/21/42, para. 58, and article 5 of the Convention on the Elimination of All Forms of Discrimination against Women. See www.wateraid.org/~/media/Files/Global/MHM%20files/Module1_HR.pdf. Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council and the United Nations Entity for Gender Equality and the Empowerment of Women (UN-Women), Menstrual Hygiene Management: Behaviour and Practices in the Louga Region, Senegal (2015), pp. 22-32. See europe.newsweek.com/womens-periods-menstruation-tampons-pads-449833?rm=eu. Water Supply and Sanitation Collaborative Council and UN-Women, Menstrual Hygiene Management: Behaviour and Practices in the Louga Region, Senegal (2015), pp. 32. 7