A/70/203 A. Sanitation 1. Connection to a piped network 45. Private household toilets linked to piped sewerage managed by a formal utility are often presented as the gold standard for sanitation. The historical development of sanitation in urban areas in the Global North largely explains the emergence of this technological conception. 7 Institutions such as schools, health-care centres and detention centres will generally be connected to a formal se werage network where this is available. 46. Piped systems usually ensure accessibility, acceptability and convenience for the user, quality and privacy. The health benefits for those connected to a sewerage network are clear, as faeces and wastewater are transported away from the household in a way that avoids human contact. While the user has to clean the toilet and ensure that the flush mechanism works properly, all other aspects of maintenance and wastewater treatment are the responsibility of someone e lse. A regulatory framework and standards for piped systems are generally available, while these are not always effectively put in place and monitored. 47. There are, however, concerns from a human rights perspective. The construction of such systems may be technically difficult to install in and around existing buildings and infrastructure where urban settlements have not been adequately planned, such as in most informal settlements. In many developing countries, the sewerage network is only available in middle and high income areas. Leaving residents of low income areas and informal settlements without access to this service often entrenches inequalities. 48. Further, piped systems often raise affordability concerns for the State, the service provider and the user. Even where a sewerage system exists and all residents are physically able to connect to it, including in informal settlements, connection charges may prevent poorer households from making use of this service, unless appropriate systems are in place to ensure affordability. 49. Moreover, a flush toilet with a sewered connection requires considerably more water than other forms of sanitation, which can raise environmental and affordability concerns. Piped sewerage has also faced criticism from an ecological perspective, questioning whether it is the soundest solution to flush away excreta with large amounts of freshwater that become contaminated in the process. 50. Further challenges arise when wastewater management and treatment are neglected. In such instances, the users of toilets linked to networked sewerage systems obtain individual health benefits, but they may inflict negative impacts on others by contaminating the environment in which they live. From a health perspective, one community’s sewage is more dangerous to external communities, as it potentially transmits different pathogens. 8 This will infringe people’s human rights to water, health and a healthy environment and will also reinforce inequalities. __________________ 7 8 15-12500 José Esteban Castro and Léo Heller, eds., Water and Sanitation Services: Public Policy and Management (London, Earthscan, 2009). See Léo Heller, “Who really benefits from environmental sanitation ser vices in the cities: an intra-urban analysis in Betim, Brazil”, Environment and Urbanization, vol. 11, No. 1 (1999). 13/24