A/HRC/11/9 page 12 be included. While no targeting mechanism can ever be perfect, from a human rights perspective inclusion errors (providing the benefit to someone who is not in the target group) are not as problematic as exclusion errors (failure to provide the transfer to those targeted). 37. CTPs have the potential for targeting certain groups that would not directly benefit from other schemes. Depending on the characteristics of the population, certain schemes may in practice assist in reaching more persons than others, and from a human rights perspective, reaching the most vulnerable and marginalized poor people should be a primary concern. For example, in a number of African countries where HIV/AIDS is prevalent, universal old age pensions have proven to be effective because they have impacted positively on the lives of AIDS orphans raised by their grandparents.13 38. “Means-testing”, which is used in a number of CTPs, is an interesting method which might be seen as a way of reaching the poorest. Nevertheless caution is required. It involves methods of wealth calculation that require more sophisticated administration systems and which may lead to exclusion errors that are discriminatory. Moreover, the more complicated the adopted method of calculation is, the more opaque the eligibility criteria becomes: this can render scrutiny of the process by beneficiaries difficult, if not impossible. As the process becomes less transparent it becomes more difficult for individuals to access the CTP. In sum, means testing is costly, it is administratively complex and requires significant administrative capacity. It can lead to large under-coverage, rendering targeted programmes ineffective. These are strong reasons for adopting universal policies in developing countries. 39. The principle of equality and non-discrimination requires that the targeting process and eligibility criteria be fair, reasonable, objective and transparent. Targeting mechanisms must be open to scrutiny, assessed on a regular basis and must not exclude those in need of support. CTPs in which the registration of beneficiaries is limited to a fixed survey or to an enrolment period raise particular concern as to the compliance with this principle. 40. Poverty originates from overt and covert discriminatory practices and these practices in turn reinforce the poverty experienced by those who are subject to discrimination. If CTPs have as their objective the reduction of poverty, then they must contribute to reducing the stigmatization of beneficiaries and eliminate negative stereotypes and social exclusion. This implies, for example, that benefits for HIV/AIDS patients be disbursed in a way that preserves their dignity and their right to privacy. 41. The principle of accessibility requires that outreach and information on CTPs must be specifically designed to reach groups that are particularly vulnerable or excluded. Information should employ channels that reach the poorest segments of society (e.g. radio announcements, talk shows, community plays, etc.). Outreach must also overcome physical barriers (e.g. by using Braille or other specific means to reach persons with disabilities) and cultural barriers (e.g. by making information available in languages used by minorities, indigenous peoples and by 13 See, Age and security: How social pensions can deliver effective aid to poor older people and their families, HelpAge International, 2004.