A/64/279 B. Respecting the principles of equality and non-discrimination 64. A human rights-based approach requires that States fulfil their duty to protect against risks and contingencies in an equitable and non-discriminatory manner. Accepting these underlying principles entails carefully screening policy choices in order to avoid the unfair exclusion of groups that would require protection. 65. This also implies a preference for schemes that are universal over those that benefit only a specific category of persons (for example, a pension for all persons over a certain age rather than only some in the age group). Even within targeting schemes, the principles of equality and non-discrimination must be respected, which makes the definition of criteria for targeting social policies a constant challenge for those working in this area. 66. Eligibility criteria utilized in targeted programmes must be fair, reasonable, objective and transparent, and individuals must have access to mechanisms for redress in case of errors. Targeted schemes must also avoid stigmatization of the beneficiaries. 67. To comply with these requirements in times of resource constraints, targeted schemes should be categorized broadly (for example, by age, location, widely recognized degree of exclusion), and within categories each provision should be universal (for example, universal coverage for everyone over 65). As capacity evolves, more sophisticated approaches to targeting can be adopted. In addition, measures must be taken to ensure that the coverage will be progressively extended to all when economic recovery takes place and public revenues improve. 68. Political decisions should be informed by the universality of human rights and by the capability of the State. Often, targeted programmes are expensive and difficult to implement, and they reduce social solidarity. Moreover, experience shows that technical problems in the design prevent targeted programmes from actually reaching the most vulnerable. Moreover, empirical research shows that careful targeting of programmes has not been accompanied by greater poverty reduction and that levels of exclusion remain high because of the data used. In a country-specific study, the World Bank estimated that the targeting criteria of one programme were as follows: “be uninformative, or even deceptive, about impacts on poverty and cost-effectiveness in reducing poverty”. 35 Studies have also shown that programmes in Latin America carried levels of under-coverage varying between 26 to 84 per cent. 36 In this sense, universal programmes may in fact provide better coverage than targeted ones and they are less costly, especially in countries where administrative capacities are limited. __________________ 35 36 16 “How relevant is targeting to the success of an antipoverty program?” Policy Research Working Paper 4385 (Washington, D. C., November 2007). Thandika Mkandawire, “Targeting and Universalism in Poverty Reduction”, Social Policy and Development Programme Paper Number 23 (United Nations Research Institute for Social Development, December 2005). 09-45276